Online hate speech includes social networks, the comments section of articles or online instant messaging and can target individuals or groups of people.
A total of 8,000 individuals were surveyed across 16 countries in a study by Ipsos conducted between August 2022 and September 2023.
Research found that hate speech and/or disinformation is perceived to be particularly prolific on Facebook and TikTok.
Around six in ten respondents across the 16 countries said that they thought such content was most widespread on Facebook, while 30 per cent said the same for TikTok.
